GLOSSARY - DEFINITIONS

Vegetable oils and proteins sector

A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | L | M | O | P | R | S | T | V |

A

Amino acids

Basic molecules that make up proteins. Each amino acid is made up of an amine group (-NH₂), an acid group (-COOH) and a variable side chain that gives it its properties. They play an essential role in many biological processes: tissue construction and repair, production of enzymes, hormones and neurotransmitters.

Essential amino acids

Certain amino acids (below) are considered essential because the body cannot synthesize them and must obtain them from the diet:

Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine

Fatty acids

Molecules which, along with glycerol, make up fats and oils (lipids). They consist of a chain of carbon and hydrogen, terminated by an acid group (-COOH). Fatty acids are an important source of energy for the body, and are also involved in the structure of cell membranes and the regulation of numerous biological processes.

Erucic acid (C22:1 n-9)

Monounsaturated fatty acid found in certain varieties of rapeseed, mustard and radish. Regulated in food (≤5% in edible oils) as excessive consumption can affect heart health.

Essential fatty acids

Fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be supplied by the diet:

Linoleic acid (omega-6)

α-Linolenic acid (omega-3)
Essential for development, cellular function and cardiovascular health.

Health claim (EU): Essential fatty acids are necessary for normal growth and development in children.

Unsaturated fatty acids

A category of fatty acids whose carbon chain contains one or more double bonds. These double bonds modify their structure, generally making them liquid at room temperature (like vegetable oils).

We distinguish :

Monounsaturated fatty acids: a single double bond (e.g. oleic acid, found in olive oil).
Polyunsaturated fatty acids: several double bonds (e.g. omega-3 and omega-6).

Linoleic acid (LA, C18:2 n-6)

Polyunsaturated fatty acid omega-6 essentialabundant in sunflowers, corn and grape seeds.
Health claim (EU): llinoleic acid helps maintain normal blood cholesterol levels

Linolenic acid

α-linolenic acid (ALA, omega-3) present in flax, rapeseed, walnuts, hemp; precursor of EPA and DHA.

Health claim (EU): ALA helps maintain normal blood cholesterol levels.

γ-linolenic acid (GLA, omega-6) present in borage and evening primrose.
.

Oleic acid (OA, C18:1 n-9)

Monounsaturated monounsaturated omega-9Majority in olive oil. Very stable and beneficial for cardiovascular health.

Palmitic acid (PA, C16:0)

Saturated fatty acid , common in palm oil and cocoa butter.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)

Fatty acids with ≥ 2 double bonds. Families omega-3 and omega-6 families.

Health claim (EU): lhe replacement of saturated fats in the diet with unsaturated fats helps maintain normal blood cholesterol levels.

Saturated fatty acids (SFA)

Fatty acids whose carbon chain contains no double bonds. All bonds between carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen, giving them a linear structure and making them generally solid at room temperature (e.g. butter, cheese, fatty meats, coconut oil).

They are a source of energy for the body, but excessive consumption is often associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Trans fatty acids:
Unsaturated fatty acids whose double bond(s) are in trans configuration (the hydrogen atoms are placed on either side of the double bond), as opposed to the cis configuration found mostly in nature.

Origin:

naturally present in small quantities in certain animal products (ruminants: milk, meat),
can be formed during technological processes, in particular during the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils or during high-temperature heat treatment. Depending on the operating conditions, the formation of trans-fatty acids can be limited or even avoided.

Effects :

excessive consumption is associated with increased cardiovascular risk (higher LDL, lower HDL),
negative impact on metabolic health (inflammation, insulin resistance).

Regulations:
To protect consumers, the European Union has set a maximum level of 2g of trans fatty acids per 100g of fat in foodstuffs.

Ricinoleic acid

Hydroxylated fatty acid characteristic of castor oil. Used exclusively in cosmetics (hair care, nails) and industrial applications (lubricants, surfactants, bio-based polymers).

Stearic acid (SA, C18:0)

Saturated saturated (cocoa, shea). Considered cholesterol-neutral.

LCA (Life Cycle Assessment)

Standardized environmental assessment method (ISO 14040-44) consisting of a quantitative evaluation of all the environmental impacts associated with a product, service or process, over all the stages of its life cycle. An LCA study is carried out in 4 stages: definition of the objectives and scope of the study, data collection and construction of Life Cycle Inventories (LCIs), impact assessment and interpretation of the results.

For a food or biobased product, the life cycle stages considered are :

upstream agriculture: cultivation practices, consumption of water, inputs (organic amendments, phytosanitary products, etc.) and energy related to this stage,
processing (e.g. crushing, extraction, oil refining, protein fractionation, esterification, etc.): consumption of energy, water, processing aids and associated emissions,
packaging of the finished product,
transport and distribution: internal and international logistics,
product use: food (oils, margarines, vegetable proteins, etc.) or non-food (biofuels, biopolymers, etc.),
product and packaging end-of-life: treatment, recycling, recovery of by-products (food, materials or energy).

LCA is a decision-making tool that can be integrated into eco-design or decarbonization strategies. For example, it can be used to :

compare different processes (cold-pressing vs. solvent extraction, conventional refining vs. soft-refining, conventional chemical process vs. biotechnological or biocatalyzed process),
inform sourcing choices (local crops, sustainable certifications), particularly for non-food applications of oils (bio-based products and materials),
improve the accuracy of GHG assessment results by developing more appropriate emission factors, and enhance the overall sustainability of our supply chains.

LCA is the methodological basis for the future environmental labelling of food products in France.

Adulteration

Fraudulent practice consisting of altering or cutting an oil with materials of lesser value, without informing the consumer.

Fatty and terpenic alcohols

Constituents of unsaponifiable matter :

Fatty alcohols: derivatives of fatty acids, present in oils and waxes.

Terpene alcohols: derived from the isoprenic pathway.

Aldehydes

Volatile compounds resulting from oxidation. Responsible for rancid taste and odor.

Sensory analysis

Organoleptic evaluation by a trained jurybased on criteria of taste, smell, texture and color.
The COI (International Olive Oil Council) defines the official panel-testing method for evaluating the sensory qualities of virgin olive oil, and classifying it according to its positive and negative attributes.

Antioxidants

Molecule or substance capable of slowing or preventing oxidation, a chemical process that degrades lipids, proteins, DNA or other biological components.

In oils and fats, antioxidants :

limit the formation of hydroperoxides and compounds responsible for rancidity,
prolong shelf life and preserve sensory quality (taste, smell, color),
protect sensitive nutritional constituents (essential fatty acids, vitamins).

Examples:

natural: vitamin E (tocopherols), polyphenols, carotenoids,
synthetics: BHA, BHT.

Antioxidants also play a key role in the body, protecting cells against oxidative stress.

B

Vegetable butter

A fatty substance extracted from the seeds, fruits or kernels of oleaginous plants, which is solid or semi-solid at room temperature. Unlike vegetable oils, which are generally liquid, vegetable butters owe their consistency to a higher proportion of saturated or monounsaturated fatty acids with high melting points.

Examples: cocoa butter, shea butter, mango butter, coconut butter.

Biodegradability

The ability of a substance to be naturally decomposed by microorganisms into water, CO₂, biomass and minerals.

For oils and derivatives (lubricants, surfactants, bio-based polymers), it guarantees :

Reduced impact on ecosystems.
Better integration into green chemistry and circular economy sectors.

Bioavailability

Proportion of a nutrient, bioactive compound or drug that, after ingestion, is actually absorbed by the body and becomes available to exert its effects at the cellular or metabolic level.

In the case of oils and lipid constituents (essential fatty acids, fat-soluble vitamins, polyphenols, etc.), bioavailability depends on several factors:

the chemical nature of the compound,
the food matrix in which it is found,
digestion conditions (presence of bile salts, enzymes),
interactions with other nutrients

Biomass

Organic matter of plant or animal origin that can be used as a source of energy or raw materials. It includes agricultural and forestry residues, energy crops, organic waste and certain microalgae.

In the field of oils and fats, biomass refers in particular to :

oil seeds and fruits (rapeseed, sunflower, soy, palm, etc.),
co-products from their processingmeal, fibrous residues),
lipid-rich microalgae.

Biomass is valorized for the production of food, biofuels, bioplastics and other biobased materials, thus contributing to a circular and sustainable economy.

Carbon Footprint

An environmental assessment method that measures the total quantity of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions generated directly or indirectly by an organization's activities.

These emissions are expressed in tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e).

Bilan Carbone® is defined by a temporal, organizational and operational perimeter, taking into account the organization's entire value chain:

incoming flows: energy, fluids, raw materials, etc,
internal flows: freight between different sites, subcontracting of activities, etc.
outgoing flows: waste, freight, travel, etc.

This method focuses on the ongoing mobilization of employees and the development of an ambitious transition plan to reduce the organization's GHG emissions.

Carotenoids

Natural fat-soluble pigments of the terpene family, responsible for the yellow, orange and red colors of many fruits, vegetables and oils (e.g. red palm oil, corn oil).

Features and roles :

natural antioxidants, they protect lipids and other molecules from oxidation,
some are precursors of vitamin A (e.g. β-carotene), essential for vision, growth and immunity,
they contribute to the nutritional and sensory quality of oils (color, stability).

Examples: β-carotene, lycopene, lutein.

Carotenes

Subfamily of carotenoids. Yellow-orange pigments, abundant in palm oil.

Chlorophyll

Natural green pigment, present in crude oils. Light-sensitive, may promote oxidation.

Cholesterol

A lipid molecule belonging to the sterol family, naturally present in the animal body. It is an essential component of cell membranes and serves as a precursor for the synthesis of numerous biological molecules (steroid hormones, vitamin D, bile salts).

Cholesterol is partly produced by the liver and partly supplied by the diet (animal products: eggs, meat, dairy products).

We distinguish :

cholesterol transported by LDL (often called "bad cholesterol" because excess promotes artery deposition),
cholesterol transported by HDL ("good cholesterol", as it facilitates the return of cholesterol to the liver for elimination).

A balance between these forms is important for cardiovascular health.

Waxes

Lipid substances consisting of esters formed between a long-chain alcohol and a fatty acid. They are distinguished from oils and fats by their higher melting point, which makes them solid at room temperature.

Waxes are found in plants (leaf and fruit cuticles, carnauba wax, candelilla wax) and animals (beeswax, lanolin). Some are also of mineral origin (kerosene wax).

Coenzyme Q9 and Q10 (ubiquinones)

Lipid molecules of the ubiquinone family, present in most living cells. They are distinguished by the length of their isoprenoid side chain: 9 units for coenzyme Q9 and 10 units for coenzyme Q10.

Biological roles :

essential components of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, where they help produce energy (ATP),
Powerful fat-soluble antioxidants, they protect cell membranes and lipids from oxidation.

Distribution differences :

coenzyme Q10 is the predominant form in humans,
coenzyme Q9 is more abundant in certain animal species (e.g. rodents).

Applications :

in health and nutrition: dietary supplements to support energy production and combat oxidative stress,
in cosmetics: anti-aging ingredient for its protective and revitalizing properties.

Fats

Generic term for all natural lipid substances, solid or liquid at room temperature, including oils, fats and butters.

They are mainly made up of triglycerides (95 to 98%), accompanied by so-called "minor" compounds (sterols, tocopherols, pigments, polyphenols...).

Roles and uses :

nutritional: energy, essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins,
Technological: they impart texture, taste, stability and functional properties to foods,
industrial: also used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, biofuels and biomaterials.

Crystallization

Physico-chemical process by which a body passes from a liquid to a solid state, forming an ordered crystalline network. In the case of oils and fats, this concerns the solidification of triglycerides at lower temperatures.

Features :

different types of crystals can form (polymorphism), influencing texture, gloss and product stability,
cooling speed, agitation and fatty acid composition determine the crystalline structure obtained,
poorly controlled crystallization can lead to defects (e.g. surface whitening in chocolate, grainy texture in vegetable butters).

Applications :

control of crystallization to obtain fats with the desired properties (spreadability, crunchiness of chocolate, texture of margarines),
control of the physical stability of oils and fats during storage.

DHA (Docosahexaenoic acid, C22:6 n-3)

A long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid from the omega-3 family. It has 22 carbon atoms and 6 double bonds.

DHA is a major constituent of cell membranes, particularly in the brain, retina and nervous system. It plays an essential role in :

brain development and function,
vision,
regulation of cardiovascular and inflammatory functions.

Main sources: fatty fish (salmon, sardines, mackerel, tuna), certain microalgae, enriched oils. The body can produce them from ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), but this conversion is very limited, hence the importance of direct dietary intake.

Health claims (EU) :

Digestion / Digestibility

Capacity of a food or nutrient to be broken down, absorbed and used by the body after ingestion. It is generally expressed as a percentage of the quantity ingested that is actually assimilated in the intestine.

In the case of oils, proteins or other plant constituents :

Good digestibility means that nutrients are easily released and accessible during digestion,
certain anti-nutritional factors (fiber, tannins, vicine/convicin, etc.) can reduce digestibility, particularly in monogastric animals,
digestibility has a direct influence on nutritional value and growth or production performance.

Link with bioavailability:
Digestibility refers to the ability to absorb a nutrient, while bioavailability also includes the proportion actually available to cells and tissues after absorption. A nutrient may therefore be digestible but poorly bioavailable, depending on its chemical form or physiological conditions.

Dispersion (in formulation)

A system in which fine solid or liquid particles are distributed within another medium (solid, liquid or gaseous) without dissolving. The particles remain distinct but are kept dispersed by physical forces or stabilizing agents.

Molecular distillation

Separation technique used to purify fats and other heat-sensitive substances. It is based on evaporation and condensation under very low pressure (high vacuum), which considerably lowers the boiling temperature of the compounds.

Oil applications:

elimination of undesirable compounds (pesticides, contaminants, aromatic hydrocarbons, etc.),
reduction of parasitic odors or tastes,
concentration or purification of certain constituents (tocopherols, sterols, polyunsaturated fatty acids).

Advantages: gentle process that limits thermal degradation and produces high-purity oils.

E

Ecodesign

A methodical approach that consists of taking environmental impacts into account right from the design phase of a new product or the improvement of an existing product, while maintaining or improving the product's performance and quality of use, by integrating various parameters linked to technical and economic feasibility, the product's health and sensory qualities, market expectations, etc. This approach takes into account the entire life cycle.

In the field of oils and fats, eco-design can take the form of :

the choice of agricultural raw materials obtained through agro-ecological practices,
the use of input materials and renewable energies,
optimization of existing processes and/or research into alternative processes,
recovery of all outgoing materials and flows, including waste and waste energy,
bringing to market products that best meet consumers' needs and uses
...

It is advisable to integrate LCA environmental assessments into the process in order to :

- identify environmental hotspots for the product concerned,
- assess the environmental benefits of the eco-design solutions envisaged, and ensure that they do not result in the transfer of impacts,
- ensure that the product is "eco-designed" (that its environmental impact is lower than that of the reference product).

Emollience

Property of a substance that softens and suppleness the skin by forming a protective film on its surface, thus limiting water loss.

In the field of oils and fats, emolliency is a sought-after characteristic in cosmetics (creams, balms, milks, care oils) because it contributes to :

improve skin comfort,
restore skin suppleness and softness,
protect against dehydration and external aggressions.

Emulsion

Dispersed system made up of two immiscible liquids (usually water and oil), one of which is dispersed in the form of fine droplets in the other.

Features :

To stabilize an emulsion, it is necessary to add an emulsifying agent (surfactant, protein, solid particles in the case of Pickering emulsions).
The main distinctions are :
- oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions: oil droplets are dispersed in an aqueous phase (e.g. milk, sauces, light cosmetic creams),
- water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions: water droplets are dispersed in an oily phase (e.g. butter, certain rich creams).

Applications :

(mayonnaise, sauces, dairy products),
cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (creams, milks, lotions),
industrial (chemical formulations, paints).

Emulsion stability depends on droplet size, emulsifier type, medium viscosity and storage conditions.

EPA (Eicosapentaenoic acid, C20:5 n-3)

A long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid from the omega-3 family. It has 20 carbon atoms and 5 double bonds.

Roles :

precursor of bioactive molecules (eicosanoids, resolvins) involved in regulating inflammation,
contributes to healthy cardiovascular function (reduction of blood triglycerides, maintenance of blood fluidity),
involvement in immune system protection and certain brain functions.

Main sources: fatty fish (sardines, mackerel, salmon, tuna), fish oils and certain microalgae. The body can produce it from ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), but this conversion remains low, hence the importance of direct intake from the diet.

Health claim (EU) : EPA and DHA contributent au normal heart function

Esterification

Chemical reaction in which an acid (often a carboxylic acid) reacts with an alcohol to form an ester and water.

In the oils and fats sector:

esterification is involved in the natural formation of triglycerides, which are esters formed between glycerol (an alcohol) and three fatty acids,
it is used industrially to produce fatty esters for cosmetics (emollients), food (additives, flavoring) and biofuels,
it's a reversible reaction: hydrolysis is the reverse reaction, breaking down the ester into acid and alcohol.

Estolide

Lipid obtained by condensation (esterification reaction) between a fatty acid and the hydroxyl function of another fatty acid. This particular structure leads to the formation of interconnected fatty acid polymers.

Features :

may be of natural origin (some plants and oils contain estolides),
can also be synthesized from vegetable oils.

Applications :

bio-based lubricants (good oxidation stability, superior lubricating properties to conventional oils),
cosmetics (emollients and texturizers),
other industrial uses (technical fluids, additives).

The appeal of estolides lies in their biosourced nature, biodegradability and good technical performance, particularly as a sustainable alternative to mineral oils.

F

Formulation

All the operations and technical choices involved in combining different ingredients or raw materials to create a finished product with the desired properties (stability, texture, taste, efficacy, preservation, etc.).

In the field of oils and fats, formulation can concern :

food (margarines, sauces, bakery products),
cosmetics (creams, milks, balms, emulsions),
pharmacies (capsules, ointments),
industrial applications (lubricants, bio-based polymers).

Formulation takes into account interactions between components (lipids, water, proteins, additives, antioxidants, etc.) as well as the product's stability, bioavailability and end use.

Fractionation

Separation process for isolating different fractions from a complex mixture to obtain compounds with specific properties.

In the oils and fats sector:

The main purpose of fractionation is to separate an oil into two phases according to their melting point:
- stearin (solid fraction, rich in saturated fatty acids, used in margarines, vegetable butters, chocolate),
- olein (liquid fraction, rich in unsaturated fatty acids, used as cooking or seasoning oil).
techniques used: dry process (controlled cooling followed by filtration) or solvent process.

In the vegetable protein sector:

Fractionation consists in separating the various components of a seed (proteins, starch, fibers, lipids) and adding value to each fraction,
dry process: grinding, air separation or sieving → to obtain protein-enriched flours,
wet process: suspension in water, solubilization and selective precipitation → to obtain high-purity protein concentrates or isolates.

Frying

A cooking method in which food is immersed in a fat bath heated to a high temperature (generally between 150 and 190°C).

Features :

high heat causes rapid dehydration of the food surface and the formation of a crispy crust,
the fat serves both as a heat carrier and as a texture and flavor agent,
part of the oil is absorbed by the food, increasing its energy content.

In oils :

Frying subjects oils to considerable stress (high temperatures, contact with air and food water),
This encourages oxidation, hydrolysis and polymerization reactions, which are responsible for oil degradation and the formation of undesirable compounds,
an oil's stability when fried depends on its fatty acid composition, antioxidant content and method of use (temperature, duration, bath renewal).

G

GHG(greenhouse gas emissions)

Quantitative evaluation of GHG emissions generated by the activities of an organization, territory or event, over a given period.

The main GHGs are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and fluorinated gases (HFCs). However, GHG emissions are usually expressed in tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e).

This assessment enables us to identify the main sources of emissions in order to implement a "low-carbon" strategy, or to meet regulatory obligations to produce and publish a BEGES (Bilan des Emissions de Gaz à Effet de Serre).

There are several methods for carrying out a GHG assessment, including the Bilan Carbone® method.

Glucosinolates

Natural sulfur compounds found mainly in plants of the Brassicaceae family (rapeseed, mustard, broccoli, cabbage, turnip...). They are water-soluble and stored in the vacuoles of plant cells.

Features and roles :

they participate in plant defense mechanisms against insects and disease,
when degraded (by the enzyme myrosinase or by thermal hydrolysis), they release various products such as isothiocyanates, thiocyanates or nitriles, which influence the pungent/bitter taste of crucifers,
some hydrolysis products have beneficial effects (antioxidant activity, potential anticarcinogenic effects),
but at high levels, glucosinolates can act as anti-nutritional factors in monogastric animals, reducing intake and digestibility and possibly affecting thyroid function.

Glycerol

Organic molecule belonging to the alcohol family, made up of three hydroxyl groups (-OH). It is the basic building block of triglycerides, where it is esterified with three fatty acids.

Features and roles :

naturally present in oils and fats in combined form,
a major by-product of oil transesterification during biodiesel production,
used in many sectors:
- (humectant additive, sweetener, solvent),
- cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (moisturizing agent, formulation support),
- industrial (raw materials for resins, plastics, solvents).

Glycerol is hydrophilic, non-toxic and biodegradable, making it a versatile and widely valued compound.

H

Natural hydrocarbons

Organic compounds consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen, naturally present in certain plants, animals and by-products. Unlike petroleum-based hydrocarbons, they are derived from renewable biological sources.

In oils and fats, natural hydrocarbons are minor constituents (less than 1%):

squalene (olive oil, amaranth oil),
n-alkanes and isoprenoids (vegetable oils, waxes),
other lipophilic compounds extracted with triglycerides.

Roles and importance :

are involved in functional properties (e.g. antioxidants for squalene),
serve as markers of oil authenticity and traceability,
are monitored for possible confusion with mineral hydrocarbons (MOSH/MOAH), contaminants of petroleum origin.

Hydrogenation

A chemical reaction in which hydrogen is added to the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids, transforming liquid oils into more solid fats. This reaction is catalyzed (often by nickel) and carried out under heat and pressure.

Hydrolysis

The breaking of a chemical bond by the action of water (often catalyzed by an enzyme, sometimes by an acid or base).

- In oils & fats (lipolysis)

Reaction: triglyceride + H₂O → free fatty acids (FFA) + glycerol (± lipase).
Causes: humidity, temperature, storage time, lipase activity (residual seeds/enzymes), prolonged contact with water.
Impacts: higher acid value, hydrolytic rancidity (soapy taste), foaming in frying, refining losses (neutralization of GLA).
Control: rapid drying of seeds/flour, enzymatic inactivation (heat treatment), inerting, limiting water and contact time.

- In proteins (proteolysis)

Reaction: breaking peptide bonds → peptides / amino acids (proteases: trypsin, alkalase, papaya/papain, etc.).
Objectives (controlled): improved solubility, digestibility, emulsifying/foaming properties, sometimes allergenicity reduction.
Caution: risk of bitterness (small peptides), loss of gelling capacity if overdone.
Monitoring: degree of hydrolysis (DH), soluble nitrogen, size distribution (SDS-PAGE/SEC).

Hydroperoxides

First products formed during the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids present in oils and fats. They appear when oxygen attaches itself to the double bonds of fatty acids under the action of free radicals or enzymes (lipoxygenases).

Vegetable oil

Liquid fatty substance obtained from the seeds, fruits or other parts of oleaginous plants (e.g. rapeseed, sunflower, olive, soy, palm). It is composed mainly of triglycerides (95 to 98%), as well as so-called "minor" constituents (sterols, tocopherols, pigments, polyphenols, etc.).

Vegetable oils can be extracted by mechanical pressure (cold or hot pressing) or by solvents, then refined to improve their stability and sensory characteristics.

Uses :

food (seasoning, cooking, frying),
nutrition (essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins),
non-food applications (cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, biofuels, bio-based polymers).

Fatty acid composition varies according to the plant of origin, which influences the nutritional, technological and sensory properties of each oil.

Virgin / Cold pressed oils

Virgin oils are obtained solely by mechanical processes (pressing of oil seeds or fruits), without the use of chemical solvents or aggressive refining treatments.

The term "cold pressed" means that the oil has been extracted at a temperature generally below 40-50°C, in order to preserve its nutritional and sensory qualities.

Features :

retain their minor compounds (vitamins, polyphenols, pigments, aromas),
often have a taste and color characteristic of the raw material,
lower yield and higher cost than refined oils.

A typical example is extra-virgin olive oil produced solely by mechanical pressing of olives at low temperature.

I

LCI (Life Cycle Inventory)

Building a Life Cycle Inventory is one of the steps in Life Cycle Assessment. It involves compiling and quantifying all the flows into and out of the system under study (e.g. a product or a technological process), so as to be able to calculate the environmental impact of the system under study (usually using LCA software).

Peroxide value

Analytical parameter used to measure the quantity of peroxides and hydroperoxides formed during the initial oxidation of lipids. It is expressed in millimoles of active oxygen per kilogram of oil or fat (meq O₂/kg).

How to use :

indicator of the primary oxidation state of oils and fats,
is used to assess the freshness and stability of a fatty substance,
used as a quality criterion in food standards (Codex Alimentarius, European regulations).

Limitation:
As hydroperoxides are unstable and rapidly degrade into secondary compounds (aldehydes, ketones...), the peroxide index only reflects the beginning of oxidation and must often be supplemented by other measurements (p-anisidine index, TBA, etc.).

Unsaponifiable

Fraction of oils and fats that does not form soaps during saponification (reaction of triglycerides with a base). Unlike triglycerides, this part remains insoluble in water and is extracted separately.

Composition:

sterols and phytosterols,
tocopherols (vitamin E),
natural hydrocarbons (squalene),
pigments (carotenoids, chlorophylls),
other liposoluble minor compounds.

Importance:

nutritional benefits (antioxidants, cholesterol regulation),
technological interest (indicator of oil quality and authenticity),
applications in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and nutrition (valorized bioactive molecules).

Interesterification

A chemical or enzymatic reaction that rearranges the fatty acids on the glycerol backbone in triglycerides, without altering the nature of the fatty acids themselves.

Oils and fats applications:

modify the melting profile of a fat to obtain a specific texture (e.g. margarines, shortenings, chocolate),
replace partial hydrogenation (which generates trans-fatty acids) with a safer technique,
improve the functional properties (spreadability, stability, plasticity) of oil and fat blends.

Techniques :

chemical: basic catalysis, random rearrangement,
enzymatic: use of lipases for more selective and controlled positioning of fatty acids.

Advantages: oils and fats can be adapted to food or industrial uses without producing trans fatty acids.

L

Polar lipids

Amphiphilic constituents (phospholipids, ceramides, etc.).

Lipoxidases / Lipoxygenases

Enzymes naturally present in many plants, seeds and animal tissues. They catalyze the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (such as linoleic or linolenic acid) into hydroperoxides.

M

Margarine

Water-in-oil emulsion based on vegetable oils and butters.

Monoglycerides and diglycerides

Partial glycerides, natural emulsifiers.

O

Omega-3:
Family of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, characterized by a double bond located on the 3ᵉ carbon atom from the end of the chain. The body cannot manufacture them, so they must be supplied by the diet.

The main omega-3s :

ALA (alpha-linolenic acid): found in flaxseeds, walnuts, rapeseed...
EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid): found mainly in oily fish (salmon, sardines, mackerel).

They play an important role in cardiovascular health, brain function, inflammation regulation and vision development.

Health claims (EU): See Linolenic acid, EPA and DHA.

Omega-6

Family of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, whose first double bond is located on the 6ᵉ carbon atom from the chain end. Like omega-3s, the body cannot manufacture them: they must therefore be supplied through the diet.

The main omega-6s :

Linoleic acid (LA): found in vegetable oils (sunflower, corn, soy).
Arachidonic acid (AA): present in certain animal products.

They play a key role in growth, immune system function and inflammation regulation. Their consumption must be balanced with that of omega-3s: the ratio recommended by ANSES is less than 5:1.

Health claims (EU): See Linoleic acid

Omega-9

Family of monounsaturated fatty acids, with the first double bond located on the 9ᵉ carbon atom from the chain end. Unlike omega-3 and omega-6, these are not essential fatty acids, as the body is able to manufacture them from other fats.

The main omega-9 is oleic acid, found in large quantities in olive oil.

Health claims (EU): See Oleic acid

Oxidation (of lipids/fats):
Spontaneous chemical reaction that occurs when fatty acids react with oxygen in the air. This phenomenon, known as autoxidation, involves self-sustaining radical reactions.

Main consequences :

Formation of unstable primary products (hydroperoxides), then secondary products (aldehydes, alcohols, acids...), responsible for the rancid taste and smell.
Alteration of the sensory quality of fats (rancidity), their nutritional value and their market value (impact on shelf life).

Factors influencing oxidation :

the nature of the fatty acids (the more unsaturated the fat, the more sensitive it is),
heat and light (especially UV),
the presence of trace metals (pro-oxidants),
the action of enzymes such as lipoxidases,
the presence of natural or added antioxidants (vitamin E, polyphenols) which slow down the phenomenon.

Control: oxidation can be monitored by analytical measurements such as peroxide value (primary products) or p-anisidine value (secondary products).

P

Phytosterols

Natural lipid compounds belonging to the sterol family, found in the plant kingdom. They are found in vegetable oils, seeds, nuts, cereals and legumes.

They play several roles:

nutritional: they limit intestinal absorption of cholesterol, helping to reduce blood cholesterol levels,
biological: like cholesterol in animals, they contribute to the structure and stability of plant cell membranes,
technological: used as indicators of the quality and authenticity of vegetable oils.

Examples: β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol.

Pickering emulsion

Emulsions stabilized not by conventional surfactants (such as emulsifiers), but by fine solid particles (e.g. silica, clay, starch, proteins, cellulose).
These particles adsorb at the interface between the two phases (oil and water), forming a physical barrier that prevents droplets from merging.

Advantages :

high emulsion stability,
use of natural, biodegradable particles,
alternative to synthetic additives.

Applications: food (creams, sauces), cosmetics (creams, lotions), pharmaceuticals, materials.

Pigments (oils)

Natural substances present in vegetable oils, responsible for their color and some of their biological properties.

The main pigments are :

Carotenoids (e.g. β-carotene): give yellow to orange hues, precursors of vitamin A, antioxidants.
Chlorophylls: confer a green color, but are photosensitive and can promote oxidation under the effect of light.
Xanthophylls and other derivatives: contribute to color nuances.

Roles :

influence sensory quality (appearance, taste),
may be of nutritional interest (antioxidants),
but certain pigments such as chlorophylls can also be pro-oxidizing factors.

Biobased polymers

Materials made from macromolecules (polymers) manufactured from renewable resources of biological origin (plants, algae, micro-organisms, organic waste, etc.), as opposed to petroleum-based polymers.

Polyphenols

A large family of compounds of plant origin characterized by the presence of several phenolic groups in their chemical structure. Found in many plants, fruits, vegetables, teas, wines and oils (especially virgin olive oil).

Roles and interests :

Natural antioxidants: protect lipids and other biomolecules from oxidation, contributing to the stability of oils and preserving their nutritional qualities.
Health: they help protect against oxidative stress and are associated with beneficial cardiovascular and anti-inflammatory effects.
Sensory: they influence the color, bitterness and astringency of certain foods and oils.

Examples: flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignans.

Health claim (EU) : Olive oil polyphenols help protect blood lipids against oxidative stress

Plant proteins

Macromolecules derived from oil and protein seeds (soybean, rapeseed, pea, sunflower), made up of essential amino acids.
In the oils and proteins sector, they represent a strategic challenge because they enable :

adding value to co-products of crushingmeal),
offer sustainable alternatives to animal proteins,
fight sarcopenia thanks to protein-rich formulations,
integrate functional ingredients (isolates, concentrates) into food, health nutrition and cosmetics.

EU health claims on proteins:

Cold-pressing

A method of extracting vegetable oils that involves mechanically pressing oilseeds or fruits without the use of heat treatment or chemical solvents.

Features :

Temperature generally below 40-50°C to preserve nutritional qualities.
Preserves sensitive compounds (vitamins, antioxidants, pigments, aromas).
Produces so-called virgin or extra-virgin oils (like olive oil).

Advantages: more "natural" oil, better nutritional value and taste.
Limitations: lower yields and higher production costs than conventional industrial extractions.

R

Refining

A series of operations (degumming, neutralization, decolourization, deodorization) to purify crude oils in order to improve their taste, odour, color and oxidation stability.
In the oils and proteins sector, refining allows :

ensure the safety of edible oils,
reduce undesirable contaminants (MCPD, glycidyl esters, heavy metals),
obtain specific qualities adapted to specific markets (food, cosmetics, biofuels),
explore alternative processes such as soft-refining, to preserve a maximum of bioactives (vitamin E, sterols, polyphenols).

Rancid

Alteration of fatty substances (oils, butters, fats) leading to the appearance of unpleasant odors and flavors. It results mainly from two phenomena:

Oxidative rancidity: due to the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in contact with oxygen, favored by heat, light and certain metals. This leads to the formation of volatile compounds (aldehydes, ketones, etc.) responsible for the rancid smell and taste.
Hydrolytic rancidity: caused by the action of water or enzymes (lipases), which release free fatty acids that can give an unpleasant taste, particularly in dairy products (butyric rancidity).

Consequences: loss of sensory quality, reduced nutritional value and shorter shelf life for oils and fatty products.

CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility)

CSR refers to a company's responsibility for the impact of its decisions and activities on society and the environment. The CSR approach aims to optimize ethical and transparent behavior that :

contributes to sustainable development (taking into account economic, environmental and social aspects),
takes into account the expectations of internal and external stakeholders,
complies with applicable laws and international standards of behavior,
is integrated throughout the company and implemented in its relationships.

S

Scale-up

Term used to designate the transition of a process or technology from the laboratory or pilot scale to industrial production. The aim is to maintain performance (yield, quality, safety) while increasing production volumes.

Soft-refining

A gentle refining process designed to preserve a maximum of natural constituents (vitamin E, sterols, polyphenols) while ensuring oil stability and safety.

Squalene

Organic compound from the lipid family, belonging to the unsaturated hydrocarbons (triterpenes). Naturally present in many living organisms, it is found in shark liver oil, certain vegetable oils (olive, amaranth, rice bran, wheat germ) and human sebum.

Applications :

cosmetics: used for its moisturizing, antioxidant and emollient properties (it is often hydrogenated to form squalane, which is more stable to oxidation),
health: studied for its protective effects against oxidation and its potential role in preventing certain diseases,
food and pharmaceuticals: used as an additive or adjuvant in certain vaccines.

Stabilizers (in formulation)

Substance or additive incorporated into a preparation (food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, chemical) to maintain its properties and quality over time. Stabilizers limit or prevent undesirable phenomena such as phase separation, oxidation, crystallization, discoloration or loss of texture.

Examples in oils and fats:

antioxidants (vitamin E, tocopherols, plant extracts) to slow oxidation,
emulsifiers or solid particles (in emulsions) to stabilize the oil/water dispersion,
anti-crystallization agents to prevent bleaching or deposition in certain fats.

Sterols (Cholesterol / Phytosterols)

A family of lipid compounds belonging to the steroid class. They occur naturally in animals (animal sterols) and plants (phytosterols).

In vegetable oils, sterols are present in small quantities but play an important role:

nutritional: phytosterols help to reduce intestinal cholesterol absorption and thus blood cholesterol levels,
technological: these are minor constituents used as indicators of oil authenticity and quality,
biological: they are involved in the structure and stability of cell membranes.

Examples: β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol (in vegetable oils).

Health claim (EU):

Glycosylated sterols

Lipid compounds formed by the combination of a sterol (like phytosterol) and a sugar (glycosyl). They are found in low proportions in many vegetable oils. These minor constituents are used as markers of oil authenticity and purity,

T

Tocopherols (Vitamin E)

Main fat-soluble antioxidants in vegetable oils. Extended family also includes tocotrienols.
Health claim (EU): vitamin E helps protect cells against oxidative stress

Tourteau

Solid residue obtained after the extraction of oil from oleaginous seeds (rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, etc.).
It consists mainly of vegetable proteins, fibres, minerals and a small percentage of residual fat.
meal are used :

in animal feed as a source of protein,
in human nutrition (concentrates and protein isolates),
in certain industrial sectors as a biosourced raw material

Transesterification

Chemical reaction in which an ester reacts with an alcohol to form a new ester and a new alcohol.

When it comes to oils and fats, transesterification is a key reaction:

in food biochemistry, it is used to modify the fatty acid composition of triglycerides to obtain fats with specific physical properties (texture, melting point),
in energy, it is used to transform vegetable oils or animal fats into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), better known as biodiesel, with the release of glycerol as a by-product.

The reaction is generally catalyzed by bases (soda, potash), acids or enzymes (lipases).

Triglycerides

Lipid molecules made up of a glycerol molecule linked to three fatty acids. They represent the main form of fat storage in the body, and make up almost all edible oils and fats.

In vegetable oils, triglycerides generally represent over 95-98% of the total composition, with the remaining few percent being minor constituents (sterols, tocopherols, pigments, etc.).

Trituration

The mechanical process of crushing and pressing oilseeds to extract crude oil.
In the oil and protein industry, crushing generates two complementary flows:

crude oil for refining or direct use (virgin, cold pressed),
protein-rich oilcake, used in animal feed, human nutrition (protein isolates) or industrial processes (biobased products).
Crushing is therefore a central stage in the oil/protein bifilière.